Major Topics

Ability Grouping

Durden, W. G., & Mills, C. J. (1993). Talent derailed: The education establishment's assault on ability grouping. Wisconsin Interest, 2(1), 43-50.

This article discusses the issues surroundingthe applications of cooperative learning and ability grouping, with particular attention to the impact on academically talented students. In recent years, cooperative learning has become the preferred teaching method in many schools; however, contrary to popular belief, this need not exclude the possibility of ability grouping.

Mills, C. J., & Durden, W. G. (1992). Cooperative learning and ability grouping: An issue of choice. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 11-16.

This article clarifies some of the issues and research on cooperative learning (CL) and ability grouping (AG) in education. CL means students working together on a school-related task, and AG is the grouping of students for instruction by ability or achievement to reduce group heterogeneity. Educators should focus their energies and attention on ensuring the quality and appropriateness of curriculum and instruction for all learners. CL has been embraced by schools as a way of addressing many of the ill s faced in education and it has been pitted against AG. Used appropriately and optionally, either in combination or alone, CL and AG are both useful educational practices. However, a more balanced, critical approach to meet the varied needs of students is advocated.

Mills, C. J., & Tangherlini, A. E. (1992). Finding the optimal match: Another look at ability grouping and cooperative learning. Equity and Excellence, 25(2-4), 205-208.

This article examines the literature on ability grouping and cooperative learning. Solid research evidence supports both. Ability grouping and cooperative learning should be used to address particular student needs.Selecting a variety of educational options to match the needs of each student would be the best way to serve all students.

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Acceleration

Ablard, K. E., Mills, C. J., & Duvall, R. (1994). Acceleration of CTY math and science students (Tech. Rep. No. 10). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

The major purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which academically talented students are being appropriately challenged by their current educational programs and accommodated according to their advanced abilities. We examined different types of acceleration experienced by students who completed an individually-paced Precalculus or Fast-Paced Science course at CTY. We examined whether these acceleration experiences were perceived as positive or negative.

Major findings were as follows:

1. Some types of acceleration (e.g., grade skipping and math course skipping) occur more frequently than others (e.g., AP credit, science course skipping, special programs).
2. The large majority of students felt that acceleration was positive, that is, acceleration increased interest, challenge, and movement through the educational system. These reports reflect students’ ability to handle the challenge of more difficult coursework.
3. Despite the overwhelming reports of the positive effects of acceleration, they were frequently accompanied by reports of negative effects (e.g., feeling isolated from age mates and being uncomfortable when placed in classes with older students). These social difficulties did not have a great impact, however, because the opportunity to be intellectually challenged often outweigh any social disadvantages.

Brody, L.E. (Ed.) (2004). Grouping and acceleration practices in gifted education. Series 3 in Essential Readings in Gifted Education series, S.M. Reis (Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Brody, L. E., Assouline, S. G., & Stanley, J. C. (1990). Five years of early entrants: Predicting successful achievement in college. Gifted Child Quarterly, 34, 138-142.

This study evaluated the achievement of 65 young entrants (aged 13 yrs. 8 mo. to 17 yrs. 7 mo.) as beginning undergraduates in a highly selective university. The group was successful. Compared to the 3,055 non-accelerants, early entrants tended to graduate in a shorter period of time and earn more honors at graduation. For the early entrants, starting college with a large number of Advanced Placement Program credits was the best predictor of outstanding academic achievement. It seems advisable for young college entrants to have SAT scores and content knowledge equal to or greater than that of the typical freshman at the college the student will attend.

Brody, L. E., & Benbow, C. P. (1987). Accelerative strategies: How effective are they for the gifted? Gifted Child Quarterly, 31, 105-110.

This study assessed academic achievements, extracurricular activities, aspirations, and social and emotional development of 470 mathematically or verbally talented students who accelerated to varying degrees during the high school years and 40 talented students who had been non-accelerates. Subjects were identified by the staff of the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth at Johns Hopkins University. After graduation from high school, subjects completed a follow-up questionnaire and other tests, including the Adjective Check List. No discernible negative effects of various accelerative strategies were found.

Brody, L. E., Lupkowski, A. E., & Stanley, J. C. (1988). Early entrance to college: A study of academic and social adjustment during the freshman year. College and University, 63(4), 347-359.

This study of early entrants to college focused on a key adjustment period, the freshman year of college. Students participating in this study were identified as extremely able mathematical reasoners by scoring 700 or above on the SAT-M before age 13, and had entered college full-time two or more years earlier than is typical. Most of the students were extremely successful, both academically and socially.

Those who encountered academic problems lacked some particular combination of experiences and/or study skills that were needed for the particular college environment that they entered. Academic bridging experiences seem to be particularly important (e. g., experience with college level work through part-time college courses, Advanced Placement course, and fast-paced summer programs).

Brody, L. E., & Stanley, J. C. (1991). Young college students: Assessing factors that contribute to success. In W. T. Southern and E. D. Jones (Eds.), The academic acceleration of gifted children. New York: Teachers College Press.

The chapter summarizes the research on early entrants to college and identifies factors likely to contribute to successful academic and social adjustment for each student. Topics discussed include a comparison of two radical accelerants, profiles of other selected accelerants, issues in radical acceleration, selecting a college as an early entrant (organized programs versus individual acceleration), alternatives to entering college at a young age, apparent positive and negative effects of acceleration , and recommendations for making early entrance to college more effective.

George, W. C. (1976). Accelerating mathematics instruction for the mathematically talented. Gifted Child Quarterly, 20, 246-261.

This article reports on the effectiveness of fast-paced mathematics classes meeting outside of regular school hours. It was found that 4.5 years of precalculus could be taught in approximately 120 hours. Implications for homogeneous grouping and acceleration in mathematics are considered.

Kolitch, E. R., & Brody, L. E. (1992). Mathematics acceleration of highly talented students: An evaluation. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(2), 78-85.

This article investigated the mathematics preparation during Grades 7-12 of 43 college students identified at an early age as demonstrating extremely high mathematical reasoning ability. The purpose was to assess the effects of acceleration in math on student achievement and interest in math. Participants as a group were quite accelerated, taking Calculus on average 2.5 years earlier than is typical. With few exceptions, subjects performed well in all courses, including college courses taken in high school. In general, males were significantly more accelerated than females. Although social and emotional concerns were not specifically addressed, participants did not report problems in these areas when asked to describe and evaluate their experiences.

Muratori, M., Colangelo, N. & Assouline S. (2003). Early-Entrance Students: Impressions of Their First Semester of College. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47(3), 219-242.

The National Academy of Arts, Sciences, and Engineering (NAASE), an early entrance to college program at The University of Iowa, welcomed its inaugural class of students in the fall of 1999. This study examined the unique academic, social, family, and transition issues, which challenged the NAASE students during their first semester of college, which was arguably the most critical juncture for them in terms of their adjustment. Through the use of in-depth interviews, behavioral observations, and student and parent surveys, a rich picture of the students’ satisfaction and challenges with their first-semester experiences emerged. A constellation of factors, which were linked to the following three broad interrelated components of satisfaction, appeared to influence the students’ perceptions of their experiences: (a) how the students experienced their transition to college, (b) the quality of the students’ relationships both at home and at college, and (c) the quality of the students’ learning experiences.

Muratori, M.C. (2006). Early entrance to college: A guide to success. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Making informed decisions about college is difficult enough for traditional students who plan to enter college after theri senior year. Those who deviate from this trajectory and exhaust their high school's course offerings 1, 2, or even 3 or more years before their age peers may consider part-time or full-time college as an alternative. Understandably, for prospective early entrants and their parents, decisions regarding college are considerably more complicated. This comprehensive guide, which incorporates the views of experts on early college entrance (ECE), ECE program administrators, early entrants, and their parents, is aimed at helping families navigate through the complex decision-making process. This book identifies important issues that need to be discussed and choices that need to be made before and after one enters college. Factors affecting academic, social, and emotional adjustment to college are explored and information about ECE programs in the United States is provided.

Zimmerman, W. E., & Brody, L. E. (1986). Part-time college for gifted high school students. Gifted Child Today, 9, 32-33.

The article discusses two ways gifted high school students can accumulate college credits while in high school: through the advanced placement program and through college courses on a part-time basis during the academic year or in a summer program.

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Disadvantaged & At-Risk Students

Barnett, L.B. (1990). Community outreach project: The pilot year in Baltimore City Schools 1989-1990 (Tech. Rep. No. 100). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Barnett, L.B., DuSel, J.C., & Gustin, W.C. (1991). Baltimore City Community Outreach Project (Tech. Rep. No. 102). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Lohrfink, K.J., Caughy, M.O., O'Campo, P.J. & Nettles, S.M. (2006). Neighborhood Matters: Racial Socialization of African American Children. Child Development, 77, 1220-1236.

Differences in racial socialization practices and their effects were examined in a sample of 241 African American 1st graders (average 6.59 years) living in an urban area. Child outcomes included cognitive development, receptive language skills, and chid problem behavior. The cultural environment of the home was associated with higher cognitive scores for boys living in high negative social climate and low social capital neighborhodds and for girls living in high social capital neighborhodds. The positive association of promotion of mistrust and child behavior problems was magnified in neighborhoods that had low levels of social capital. A high negative social climate in the neighborhood attenuated the positive association between preparation for bias/promotion of mistrust and externalizing problems.

Lynch, S. J., & Mills, C. J. (1990). The Skills Reinforcement Project (SRP): An academic program for high potential minority youth. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 13, 364-379.

Participation in a Skills Reinforcement Project (SRP) resulted in many Black, Hispanic and socioeconomically disadvantaged students qualifying for gifted program screening without recourse to affirmative action. Forty-five 6th-grade students who had s cored in the 80th-96th percentiles on the California Achievement Test (CAT) and a matched comparison group (CG) were assessed. The SRP included Saturday classes in spring and fall and a 2-week summer residential component. Both SRP participants and CG were pre- and post-tested with the CAT. The SRP group made significantly greater gains in mathematics (86th to 92nd percentile equivalents) and, while not statistically significant, had a percentile gain twice that of the CG on reading.

Lynch, S. J., & Mills, C. J. (1993). Identifying and preparing disadvantaged minority youth for high level academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 66-76.

The Skills Reinforcement Project (SRP) was designed to increase the basic skills of disadvantaged and minority youth in mathematics and language arts. Forty-five minority and economically disadvantaged 6th graders participated in a 110-hr. academic program on Saturdays and at a residential college during the summer. When compared with 46 students of similar SES, sex, and ethnicity, the SRP participants made statistically greater gains on pre- and posttest measures of math. Although not statistically significant, the gains made on the verbal measures were greater than those made by the comparison group.

Mills, C. J., Stork, E. J., & Krug, D. (1992). Recognition and development of academic talent in educationally disadvantaged students. Exceptionality, 3, 165-180.

This research involved 36 students identified as "educationally disadvantaged" who scored above average on standardized achievement tests and completed a program to reinforce their academic skills in either language arts or mathematics and 28 control students who received no instructional intervention. Data indicate a significant effect of the instructional intervention for both achievement and aptitude test scores in language arts and math. Gains in math were significantly greater than in language arts. After instructional intervention, the majority of subjects were eligible and academically qualified for challenging gifted-talented programs.

Mills, C. J. (1992). Reflections on "Recognition and development of academic talent in educationally disadvantaged students." Exceptionality, 3, 189-192.

Key elements of the program are outlined. When this program is repeated, the necessity of carefully selecting teachers in terms of training, personal characteristics, and "comfortableness" with the program is emphasized. Data indicate these students ma y need more time in school, more individual attention, and more specialized programs to provide the experiences necessary for full development of their abilities.

Mills, C. J., & Tissot, S. (1995). Identifying academic potential in students from under-represented populations: Is using the Ravens Progressive Matrices a good idea? Gifted Child Quarterly, 39, 209-217.

Increasing concern has been focused on the under-representation of African-American and Hispanic students in programs for the academically talented. The Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) has been suggested as a possible instrument to remedy this situation; however, little research has been conducted about its validity in identifying academic potential in minority populations. A sample of low-income minority students was given the Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) along with a more traditional measure of academic aptitude (the School and College Ability Test) to compare the ability of each to identify students who might profit from advanced-level coursework. There were differences among ethnic groups in results of both tests, but a significantly higher proportion of minority children scored at a high level on the RPM than on the traditional measure. In addition, the RPM does appear to be a useful instrument for identifying academic potential in students with limited English proficiency. However , there are still issues and concerns surrounding the use of the APM as the sole instrument for selecting students to participate in special programs stressing high level academic standards and content. The RPM appears to hold more promise as a general screening instrument to be used in conjunction with other measures to identify students with academic potential who could profit from special programs designed to enhance their academic skills.

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Education of Academically Talented / Highly Able Youth: General

Barnett, L. B., Gustin, W. C., & Dusel, J. C. (1996). Community challenge: Enhancing the academic achievement of children and youth. Roeper Review, 19, 111-114.

The article discussed the 1991 and 1992 programs of the Baltimore and Washington D.C. Community Outreach Project of The Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth (CTY). The project’s two goals were to identify additional urban students who would qualify for the traditional CTY Summer Academic Programs, and to identify and serve other students whose substantial ability had previously gone unrecognized and, consequently, undeveloped. Major elements included the need to provide rigorous academic challenge to able students and adaptation of CTY’s Individually Paced Precalculus Mathematics Sequence course to the needs of the Community Outreach Project participants. In addition, student performance in Precalculus Mathematics and Algebra I Survey is discussed with analysis of the substantial gains demonstrated after these special programs.

Barnett, L.W., Albert, M.E., & Brody, L.E. (2005). The Center for Talented Youth Talent Search and Academic Programs. High Ability Studies, 16(1), 27-40.

Through annual talent searches based on the model developed by Julian Stanley, the Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth (CTY) seeks to identify, assess and recognize students with advanced academic abilities. CTY has also developed extensive programs and services to meet the needs of these students. Having grown steadily in response to students' needs since its inception, CTY now serves approximately 80,000 students each year through its talent search and various academic offerings. This article presents an overview of these programs and services.

Brody, L. E., & Benbow, C. P. (1990). Effects of high school coursework and time on SAT scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 866-875.

Two studies were conducted to determine (1) whether differential educational experiences contribute to differential growth on Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores and (2) whether such experiences must occur over a long rather than a short duration to have impact. Specific content knowledge in mathematics/science and verbal areas taught during a short time interval did not increase SAT-M and SAT-V scores even when the content was of the type required to solve SAT problems. Exposure to academically rigorous educational experiences over a long time period (5 yrs.) did relate to the development of abilities measured by the SAT. In addition, students who experienced very large gains on the SAT over this 5-year period, in comparison with students with small gains, were achieving better in a more rigorous program of high school courses in mathematics and science for the SAT-M and in verbal areas for the SAT-V. Results support the position that educational experiences over time influence SAT scores.

Brody, L. E., & Blackburn, C. C. (1996). Nurturing exceptional talent: SET as a legacy of SMPY. In C. P. Benbow & D. Lubinski (Eds.), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

The Study of Exceptional Talent (SET) is designed to help extremely talented students develop appropriate educational plans and locate challenging supplemental opportunities. Originally founded in 1971 as the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY), SET was created in order to reflect its expanded interest in high verbal as well as high mathematical talent. Students qualify for SET by scoring 700 or higher on the SAT-M or 630 or higher on the SAT-V before their 13th birthdays. This article describes the demographic characteristics, career interests, and educational experiences of SET members; programmatic options for meeting SET members’ academic and intellectual needs; and ways of utilizing these options to meet individual students’ needs.

Drummond, D. (2000). Gifted education: The need for federal legislation mandating special education programs for gifted children. Current Issues in Gifted Education, 1(1), 9-15.

Durden, W. G., & Tangherlini, A. E. (1993). Smart kids: How academic talents are developed and nurtured in America. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.

The book first reviews the ups and downs of American interest in the problems of talented children, then carefully explains the approach used at CTY, which emphasizes flexible pacing, opportunities for individual inquiry, academic rigor, creative teaching, and the use of otherwise off-the-shelf curriculum materials. In connection with nine interesting case studies, the authors vividly explain the crucial drawbacks in our current educational system, and how clear improvements can be workably introduced.

Fox, L. H., Brody, L. E., & Tobin, D. (1985). The impact of intervention programs upon course-taking and attitudes in high school. In S. F. Chipman, L. R. Brush, & D. M. Wilson (Eds.), Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Concern about gender differences in mathematical achievement has led to numerous interventions to help females achieve at a higher level. This study assessed the impact of three different types of special programs at the junior high school level upon the he mathematics course-taking behavior and attitudes of highly able girls. The treatment assessed included two programs held on the Johns Hopkins University campus for 7th grade girls, a 1977 summer career awareness class and a 1973 summer accelerated summer mathematics program, as well as four school-system based programs held between 1974 and 1978. The study included a control group of high ability students who had not participated in these programs.

Results showed that special programs for the mathematically gifted do have an impact on the course-taking behaviors and plans and aspirations of girls. Girls who participated in special school system accelerated mathematics classes achieved as well as boys in these classes and had strong commitments to studying advanced mathematics courses. Girls who participated in a program that included a career awareness component and exposure to female role models had higher levels of educational aspiration than boys or girls who received no treatment or an accelerated program only. Girls who participated in any of the treatment programs were less likely than girls not in the programs to have weak career commitments for their lifestyle plans. Boys and girls differed little in attitudes toward mathematics with the exception that girls, even in this highly able group, exhibited less familyidence in their mathematical abilities.

Hyman, M. B., & Brody, L. (1984). Career guidance for the gifted. Gifted Child Today, 31, 30-33.

The article describes the development of one-day workshops in careers in science and math for motivated and gifted adolescents through a program offered by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth. Professionals in a variety of fields make presentations about their careers and provide advice to students interested in pursuing a similar career path.

Stanley, J.C. (2005). A quiet revolution: finding boys and girls who reason exceptionally well and/or verbally and helping them get the supplemental educational opportunities they need. High Abilities Studies, 16(1). 5-14.

The antecedents for the four regional annual talent searches for boys and girls who reason exceptionally well mathematically and/or verbally began in 1971 at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, with the creation of the 'Study of mathematically precocious youth' under the direction of the author of this article, its originator. Here he traces the development and expansion that led to much experimentation during the 1970s and the formation in 1979 of what is now called the Center for Talented Youth and similar programs based at three other private universities in the United States. These cover the entire USA and cooperate with educators in a number of foreign countries, especially England, Ireland and Spain.

Wallace, P. (2005). Distance education for gifted students: leveraging technology to expand academic options. High Ability Studies, 16(1). 77-86.

Technological advances and widespread access to the Internet are facilitating new educational approaches that go beyond the traditional face-to-face classroom setting. Distance education has emerged as a valuable option for a number of special populations of learners whose needs are more difficult to meet in the classroom, of which gifted students are one. This paper explores the many varieties of distance education and the technologies that support them and examines research on the effectiveness of the approaches in different settings. Research on the distance education programs offered by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth is summarized and best practices, based on the findings, proposed.

Ybarra, Lea (2005). Beyond national borders: the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth reaching out to gifted children from throughout the world. High Abilities Studies, 16(1). 15-28.

The Johns Hopkins University Center for Talent Youth (CTY) is celebrating 25 years of working with gifted children both in the USA and from throughout the world. Beginning in 1979, its mission has been to identify students of exceptional academic promise and to offer them distinctive and challenging educational opportunities. More than one million young people have now been reached through CTY's talent search and program offerings. The programs and services offered to CTY students include: summer programs, distance education, civic leadership institutes, family academic conferences, awards ceremonies, diagnostic counseling and testing, research and publications. Through its offerings, CTY has reached beyond the USA and has become an international program, with students attending its summer program from almost 80 countries and enrolling in its distance education courses from 55 countries. In collaboration with colleagues from throughout the world, CTY remains committed to nurturing these highly talented young people and to providing an environment where their talent can "soar".

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Education of Academically Talented / Highly Able Youth: Math & Science

Ablard, K. E., & Mills, C. J. (1991). Principals’ report (Tech. Rep. No. 6). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

The Principals’ Study was developed to complement data from the Achievement Follow-up Study of CTY’s Precalculus and Fast-Paced Science courses for the years 1988 and 1989. The issue of credit and placement for CTY students was a central question in the Achievement Follow-up Study. Data included information from schools (attended by CTY students) on their policy and practice regarding the awarding of credit and/or placement for CTY precalculus or fast-paced science courses.

Approximately one-half of the schools reported that they awarded credit and/or placement for CTY courses. Decisions depended mostly upon proof of CTY course completion, CTY teacher recommendations, subject area of the course, and results from an in-house test.

Ablard, K.E., Mills, C.J. & Corazza, L. (1992). Credit & placement: Math & science (Tech. Rep. No. 7). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K.E. (2005). Credit & placement for CTY: Math & science courses: Trends over time(Tech. Rep. No. 32). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K. E., & Tissot, S. L. (1998). Young students’ readiness for advanced math: Precocious abstract reasoning. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 206-223.

Academically talented students were found to have precocious reasoning abilities and to be ready for advanced math earlier than when it is typically offered. This study examined above-grade-level abstract reasoning abilities of 150 students ranging from 2nd to 6th grades. Students’ scores on the Arlin Test of Formal Reasoning were found to be equivalent to those for a normative group of students four grade levels higher. The understanding of various abstract concepts varied by age for only 4 of 8 sub scales or concepts: Probability, Proportion, Momentum, and Frames of Reference. Performance varied widely within age level for the understanding of Volume, Correlation, Combination, and Mechanics. There may not be one age at which children acquire abstract reasoning and are ready for advanced mathematics. Therefore, identification of students for placement into algebra should be done on a case-by-case basis.

Aldrich, P. W., & Mills, C. J. (1989). A special program for highly able rural youth in grades five and six. Gifted Child Quarterly, 33, 11-14

Thirty-two 5th and 6th grade academically advanced students were selected on the basis of extraordinary reasoning ability (primarily verbal) to participate in a pull-out program. Twenty students of similar ability served as a control group. All subjects were given a pre- and post-test of reading comprehension and vocabulary from the advanced level of the Sequential Tests of Educational Progress--Series III, and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventories. The achievement test scores of students in the program showed significant gains in both reading comprehension (including inference skills) and vocabulary. Similar gains were not found for controls. Self-esteem scores for both groups remained constant with no significant gains or losses.

Barnett, L. B., & Durden, W. G. (1993). Education patterns of academically talented youth. Gifted Child Quarterly, 37, 161-168.

One hundred ninety-two students who participated in the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth (CTY) Academic Programs were compared to 161 eligible students who did not enroll in CTY courses. The two groups of students, over a five-year period (1980-1984), were matched on gender and SAT scores. Results of a questionnaire completed when the last group had finished high school suggest an education pattern of high academic achievement by both groups, with many students pursuing a rigorous high school program including College Board Advanced Placement courses and college courses outside of school. However, students who participated in CTY academic programs reported taking more advanced courses at an earlier age and enrolling in more college courses while in high school. The education pattern and accompanying achievement, exemplified by both groups, provide a validation for the selection instrument, the SAT.

Corazza, L., Gustin, W. C., & Edelkind, L. (1995). Implementation of the CTY math model in three Brooklyn schools. Gifted Child Today, 18(3), 20-24.

Community School District 22 Brooklyn, New York, in cooperation with the Center for Talented Youth (CTY) of the Johns Hopkins University, has established a mathematics project based on CTY pedagogy and philosophy in three District 22 intermediate schools. The project included training five sixth-grade teachers at a CTY Summer Programs facility. During this time, adaptations of CTY’s Diagnostic-Testing/Prescriptive Instruction (DT-PI) model of instruction were developed to address the needs of the individual schools. All of the 165 students in the project completed at least as much mathematics as required in the current sixth-grade curriculum in District 22, maintaining a level of mastery of at least 90%. 116 students actually ended the year at various points in the seventh-grade prealgebra curriculum and 19 students progressed on into Algebra. The success of the first year of the project has convinced both teachers and administrators to:

1. expand the project; and
2. in the second year, serve both sixth- and seventh-grade students at the three original schools, and sixth graders at two additional schools, for a total population of 458 students.

The success of the Community School District 22 Math Project illustrates the applicability of the DT-PI model in a public school setting. A pedagogy which takes into consideration the prior knowledge, ability, learning style, and motivation of each individual student, and tailors instructional strategy to satisfy their needs, is appropriate for a broad spectrum of student ability. This model, appropriately called “Optimal Match” and championed by CTY, has demonstrated its validity outside CTY’s very selective environment.

Gustin, W. C., & Corazza, L. (1994). Mathematical and verbal reasoning as predictors of science achievement. Roeper Review, 6, 160-162.

This article analyzed the relative contribution of age, gender, verbal reasoning ability (VRA), and mathematical reasoning ability (MRA) as predictors of success in fast-paced science courses. 562 boys and 203 girls (mean age 14.3 years) enrolled in science courses (biology, chemistry, or physics) were administered a test following the completion of the course. Scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) verbal and math sections were also used as indicators of VRA and MRA. A composite of VRA and MRA was found to be a more powerful predictor of success in a fast-paced science course than any of the variables considered separately.

Lynch, S. J. (1990). Credit and placement issues for the academically talented following summer studies in science and mathematics. Gifted Child Quarterly, 34, 27-30.

Students (n=570, aged 12-16 years) who attended university-sponsored science and mathematics summer classes reported on their subsequent status at their regular schools pertaining to credit and placement issues. Advanced placement was given more often than credit, although in most cases both were awarded, particularly for high school level course work.

Lynch, S. J. (1990). Fast-paced science for the academically talented: Issues of age and competence. Science Education, 74(6), 585-596.

This study of 905 academically talented students (ages 12-16 years) who completed a one-year course in high school biology, chemistry, or physics in a three-week summer program found that the fast-paced courses effectively prepared subjects to accelerate in science and that talented students could begin high school sciences earlier than generally allowed.

Miller, R., Mills, C. J., & Tangherlini, A. E. (1995). Appalachia model mathematics project: Successful programming for gifted students. Roeper Review, 18, 138-141.

The Model Mathematics Program was designed to meet the needs of gifted students in the area of math. This article documents results from the first 6 years of the project. Elementary and middle school students showed significant growth in math computation skills and concepts after receiving math instruction in flexibly paced math classes. Other outcomes included increased participation and improved performance in math competitions, and regional and state-wide recognition.

Mills, C. J., & Ablard, K. E. (1993). Credit and placement for academically talented students following special summer courses in math and science. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17, 4-25.

After participating in a 3-week individually paced precalculus or science course, 892 academically talented high school students were surveyed about academic credit and/or course placement for their independent work. Findings indicated that most students received credit or placement or both, with more awards for placement than credit. Placement/credit was related to Scholastic Aptitude Test scores, gender, type of school, and grade level. As current educational reforms are being examined, educational resources that are available outside of school for special populations should be considered.

Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E., & Gustin, W. C. (1994). Academically talented students' achievement in a flexibly paced mathematics program. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 25, 495-511.

Third through sixth-grade mathematically talented students (n=306) enrolled in a flexibly paced mathematics course made achievement gains far beyond the normative gains expected over a one-year period. When compared to students several grade levels higher, these highly able students gained as much as 46 percentile points from pre- to post-testing. Above-grade-level testing revealed that the students possessed a wide range of mathematics knowledge prior to entering the course, with some students scoring at exceptionally high levels. With an individualized learning pace, some students as young as 4th grade completed the arithmetic/prealgebra sequence in their first year and returned the second year to successfully complete the beginning algebra sequence. Restricting such students to a rigid instructional pace and a “grade-appropriate” curriculum may place them at risk for declines in motivation and achievement.

Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E., & Lynch, S. J. (1992). Academically talented students’ preparation for advanced-level coursework after an individually-paced precalculus class. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 16, 3-17.

Nine months after participating in a 3-week individualized, flexibly-paced precalculus course, 218 academically talented students who received placement into a subsequent advanced math course completed a questionnaire assessing perceived preparation for advanced level work, grades received in the placement course, and perceived challenge of the individually-paced course relative to the placement course. The students experienced greater challenge in the precalculus course than in their school placement course. Self-reported grades, as well as perceptions of preparation for advanced level study, suggest that IP courses prepare students to be successful in placement courses in their school. Mathematics courses which allow students to proceed at a pace of learning matched to their abilities, followed by appropriate placement in their schools, provide an educational opportunity to meet the special academic needs of talented students.

Moore, N. D., & Wood, S. S. (1988). Mathematics with a gifted difference. Roeper Review, 10, 231-234.

This paper reviews the Richmond (Virginia) Young Students Mathematics Class, sponsored by the Center for Talented Youth of Johns Hopkins University for upper elementary students. Student selection, course content and approach, instructional methods, staffing, student outcomes, student and parent reactions, and implications are discussed.

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Education of Academically Talented / Highly Able Youth: Writing

Reynolds, B. (1981, January/February). College level writing skills for the early-adolescent verbally gifted: Philosophy and practice. Gifted Child Today, 48-50.

Writing Skills (WS) workshops are process-oriented; they assume that students have important information to communicate and investigate the means by which ideas are communicated. WS provide tools for verbally gifted children; they facilitate a precocious interest in a specific subject at a rate more accelerated than what is usually available. Some emphases used in WS I and II are: eliminating verbosity and redundancy; diction; syntax; alliteration and assonance; metaphor and simile; analogy and conceit ; and voice. Students who participate in WS demonstrate high performance on standardized tests. Seventy percent of students who participated in 2 semesters of WS achieved scores at or above the 86th percentile on the College-Level Examination Placement test.

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Gender Differences / Gifted Young Women

Brody, L. E., Barnett, L. B., & Mills, C. J. (1994). Gender differences among talented adolescents: Research studies by SMPY and CTY at The Johns Hopkins University. In K. A. Heller & E. A. Hany (Eds.), Competence and responsibility: Proceedings of the Third European familyerence of the European Council for High Ability, pp. 204-210. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.

This article summarizes gender differences that have emerged in a variety of studies conducted at Johns Hopkins. For example, in measures of quantitative ability, males outperformed females on tests taken by students as young as 2nd grade through college students applying to graduate school. In the CTY talent search, some improvement in females’ performance on the SAT-M compared to males’ performance has been noted in recent years. In particular, among the highest scorers on SAT-M in the CTY talent searches, the ratio of males to females scoring at this level is considerably less than was evident in the talent searches conducted in 1980-1982.

In addition to gender differences in test performance, the research summarized here suggests differences between males and females in educational opportunities, interest, motivation, self- familyidence, and personality traits that may contribute to differential achievement by males and females in mathematics and science. More work is needed to help us understand the interaction effect of these variables in determining the attitudes and behaviors of talented individuals.

Brody, L. E., & Fox, L. H. (1980). An accelerative intervention program for mathematically gifted girls. In L. H. Fox, L. Brody, & D. Tobin (Eds.), Women and the mathematical mystique. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Gifted girls participated in a mathematics program at The Johns Hopkins University in the summer of 1973. The program consisted of a course in Algebra I for 26 seventh-grade girls and included special attention to the social needs of the girls, female role models, some career awareness training, and an emphasis on the social implications of mathematics. Control groups of boys and girls who did not participate in the program were selected for purposes of comparison in assessing the program. In 1977, when the students had completed the eleventh grade, there were significant differences in mathematical acceleration between the control boys and the control girls and between the experimental girls and the control girls, but not between the experimental girl s and the control boys. Differential values, career interests, and encouragement are explored as possible contributing factors to sex differences in course-taking behavior.

Durden, W. G., Mills, C. J., & Barnett, L. B. (1990). Aspects of gender differentiation in the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth. In W. Wieczerkowski and T.M. Prado (Eds.), Highly talented young women. Bad Honnef, Germ any: K. H. Bock.

The participation rate of young men and women from throughout the United States and abroad in the CTY Annual Talent Search and the participation rate and enrollment pattern of these young people in the summer residential programs of CTY were examined. In addition, preliminary commentary described the participation and achievement of very young women and men in a pilot CTY project for elementary or primary students. This study also described several in-progress research projects relating specifically to the performance of women in the CTY program. Among these projects were:

1. the investigation of specially-sponsored all-female mathematics and computer science classes, and
2. the investigation of the relationship between personality factors and gender differences in mathematics ability, achievement and participation.

Fox, L. H., Brody, L. E., & Tobin, D. (Eds.) (1980). Women and the mathematical mystique. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Why do boys score higher than girls on tests of mathematical ability? Why do so few women go on to pursue careers in mathematics? Do the stereotypes and pressures of society contribute to the differences in interest and achievement between boys and girls? Women and the Mathematical Mystique examines the question of sex differences in mathematical ability and achievement and then points the way for new research efforts and changes in educational policy and practice.

This book includes in-depth profiles of the personalities and backgrounds of creative women in the field--where they found encouragement and where they faced barriers. Four essays investigate the nature and extent of sex differences in the study of mathematics and suggest possible causes for differences in achievement and interest. Finally, the book reports on the impact of special programs, teachers’ behavior, and parents’ attitudes that increase women’s performance and success in mathematics.

Fox, L. H., Tobin, D., & Brody, L. E. (1980). Sex role socialization and achievement in mathematics. In M.A. Witting & A. C. Peterson (Eds.), Determinants of sex-related differences in cognitive functioning. New York: Academic Press.

Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement are most apparent in course-taking at the secondary- and post secondary-school levels and in the pursuit of careers related to mathematics. Even if there are sex-related differences in inherited mathematical ability, high ability girls are not pursuing mathematics as do their male contemporaries. Two explanations are offered related to sex-role socialization: the masculine-identification hypothesis and the social-reinforcement hypothesis. There is evidence supporting the social-reinforcement hypothesis, which says that sex-related differences in mathematical achievement, at least in part, are the result of differential social conditioning and expectations for boys and girls. The perception of mathematics as a domain restricted to males may create a familylict for mathematically able girls between academic achievement and popularity, leading to reduced course taking in mathematics. Goals for interventions should include reducing gender differences in course taking and test performance, increasing females’ awareness of career options in mathematics and the sciences, and eliminating sex-role stereotyping--especially the depicting of mathematics as a male domain.

Fox, L. H., Tobin, D., & Brody, L. E. (1981). Career development of gifted and talented women. Journal of Career Education, 7, 289-298.

In the United States women comprise slightly more than 50 percent of the population and approximately 40 percent of the labor force, yet they are conspicuously absent from the ranks of political leadership and under-represented in most high-prestige, high-salary occupations. For example, in 1976 women held only 13 percent of the professional positions in mathematics, computer science, and the life sciences. An even smaller percentage (7.5) were employed in the physical sciences, and less than one per cent of the engineers were women. Nor do women dominate the ranks of the professional artist, musician, or writer. As more and more women enter the labor force, it is important to examine the development of career interests and goals by those women who have the potential for professional careers and leadership roles.

Research on differences between gifted and average ability students is presented. This article summarizes the research on differences between gifted boys and girls on career interests, career orientation, and sex-role socialization. The implications o f these differences for career education and counseling strategies for gifted girls and women are discussed.

Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E., & Stumpf, H. (1993). Gender differences in academically talented young students' mathematical reasoning: Patterns across age and subskills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(2), 1-7.

When a sample of academically talented students in Grades 2-6 was given a test of mathematical reasoning ability, boys performed better than girls. The gender differences for mathematical ability appeared as early as 2nd grade in samples tested over a 7-year period but varied somewhat according to mathematical subskills. There were no substantial gender-related differences on tasks requiring students to identify whether enough information was provided to solve a task. However, boys performed better than girls on tasks requiring application of algebraic rules or algorithms, as well as on tasks in which the understanding of mathematical concepts and number relationships was required.

Stanley, J. C., Benbow, C. P., Brody, L. E., Dauber, S., & Lupkowski, A. E. (1991). Gender differences on eighty-six nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests. In N. Colangelo, S.G. Assouline, & D. L. Ambroson (Eds.), Talent Development, (pp. 42-65). Unionville, NY: Trillium Press, 1992.

Gender differences on a wide variety of cognitive tests over several years are examined to determine their pattern. The test batteries are 8 DAT, 2 PSAT, 3 SAT, 4 ACT, 14 College Board high school achievement, 26 AP, 6 MCAT, 1 LSAT, 2 GMAT, 3 GRE aptitude, and 17 GRE subject tests. There was a strong tendency (correlations of .55 for GRE subject tests, .75 for AP, and .78 for CB achievement) for the scores of males to exceed those of females most on those tests taken mainly by men and little or not all on those taken chiefly by women. Young men excelled mostly on DAT Mechanical Reasoning, young women most on DAT Spelling. Women were slightly ahead on language usage, clerical speed and accuracy, English composition, and knowledge of some foreign languages. Men were relatively higher on political science, physics, European history, computer science, and chemistry. The pattern of differences was consistent across many kinds of tests and grade levels. Many of the differences were large enough to affect admission to selective institutions of higher learning. Overall, the College Board achievement and AP gender differences have been stable during a seven- or eight-year period, except that AP Computer Science favored males considerably less in 1990 than in 19 84, the first year this test was offered. In this study, we examine some of the “whats” in considerable detail but do not attempt to determine the “whys.” Much detailed, long-term research about the origins and development of gender differences on cognitive tests is sorely needed.

Stumpf, H. (1995). Gender differences in performance on tests of cognitive abilities: Experimental design issues and empirical results. Learning and Individual Differences, 7, 275-287.

Problems in the representativeness of the samples of subjects and test items, in test reliability and factor purity, in the interpretation of effect sizes, and in the heterogeneity of variance can inadvertently bias conclusions drawn from scores of fem ales and males. Five major reviews of gender differences in cognitive abilities are summarized. While the differences are not dramatic, they do indicate that females show advantages in tests of verbal abilities, memory, perceptual speed, and fluency, while males show advantages in tests of number ability, closure, space orientation, and space visualization. Some researchers have reported declines in gender differences over the recent decades.

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Gifted Students With Learning Disabilities

Brody, L. E., & Mills, C. J. (1997). Gifted children with learning disabilities: A review of the issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 282-296.

Many people have difficulty comprehending that a child can be gifted and also have learning disabilities. As a result, children with special needs that result from both their high abilities and their learning problems are rarely identified and are often poorly served. This article explores the current policies and practices with regard to defining, identifying, and educating this population. Recommendations are included that would help ensure that students who are gifted and have learning disabilities receive the intervention needed to help them achieve their full potential.

Fox, L. H., & Brody, L. E. (1983). Models for identifying giftedness: Issues related to the learning disabled child. In L. H. Fox, L. E. Brody, & D. Tobin (Eds.), Learning disabled/gifted children: Identification and programming. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

The concept of a child with exceptionally high abilities also having learning disabilities is difficult for many educators to accept. This book brings together experts from both the fields of giftedness and learning disabilities who explore the question of how to characterize, define, identify, and develop programs for gifted children with learning disabilities. The results of empirical research on this population, as well as case studies, are included. Several model programs that were developed specifically for this population are described.

Mills, C.J. & Brody, L.E. (1999) Overlooked and Unchallenged: Gifted students with learning disabilities. Knowledge Quest, 27(5), 30-34.

Despite the many examples of famous individuals who were obviously talented and yet had great difficulty as students, many people have difficulty understanding that a child can be gifted and also have a learning disability. Because these students are so misunderstood, they are rarely identified and even if identified are often poorly served. This article explores the current policies and practices with regard to defining, identifying, and educating this misunderstood and underserved population.

Mills, C.J. & Brody, L.E. (2002) The Doubly Exceptional Child: A principal's dilemma. Streamlined Seminar, 20(4), 1-2.

In an educational environment of limited resources, competing agendas, and budget cutbacks, why should a principal care about doubly exceptional children. The answer is tied to a school's mission to give every child an equal opportunity to realize his or her full potential. This article discusses the characteristics of the child who is both gifted and learning disabled and then addresses the role of the principal in leading and assisting staff to meet the academic needs of these children.

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Identification of Academically Talented Youth

Ablard, K. E., & Mills, C. J. (1996). Evaluating abridged versions of the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices for identifying students with academic talent. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 14, 54-64.

The Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) has been recommended as a useful measure for identifying academic potential. Several empirically-derived versions of Set II were examined. Students (n=220) in grades 5-9 were asked to complete Set I and Set II of the APM. Short form scores were calculated based on the 12 items selected by Arthur and Day. Short forms 1 and 2 and the APM Set I were correlated with Set II. Both derived short forms more strongly correlated with Set II than was Set I. The psychometric properties of the short forms were cross-validated by administering tests to an independent sample of 247 academically talented students in grades 5-9 and showed comparable results. In addition, scores from short forms 1 and 2 were correlate d with independent assessments of reasoning, demonstrating the same relationship as the full length APM Set II.

Barnett, L. B., & Corazza, L. (1993). Identification of mathematical talent and programmatic efforts to facilitate development of talent. European Journal for High Ability, 4, 48-61.

The Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth (CTY) identifies students who reason well mathematically and/or verbally and offers summer and academic year programs of rigorous course work. Gender differences in test performance, even though no t as large as previously reported, are noticeable, particularly among the highest test scores. The majority of students benefit from summer program participation, and have increased access to more advanced course work. No differences were found between 19 82 and 1991 male and female populations in class ranking, liking of mathematics, or perceptions of support from the peers, family members, and teachers. However, the lack of support from the peer group underscores the academic isolation of this group of students.

Barnett, L. B., & Gilheany, S. (1996). The CTY Talent Search: International applicability and practice in Ireland. High Ability Studies, 7, 179-190.

The Talent Search model of above-level standardized testing is a core practice of the Center for Talented Youth (CTY) at The Johns Hopkins University in the USA, where it was introduced in 1971. The Hopkins Model was adapted for use at the Irish Centre for Talented Youth (CTYI) at Dublin City University in 1993, and this adaptation marks the first major international replication, incorporating both the mathematics and verbal portions of the SAT. The SAT proved to be a valuable assessment instrument for these students, whose scores resembled those of American students.

Barnett, L.W., Albert, M.E., & Brody, L.E. (2005). The Center for Talented Youth Talent Search and Academic Programs. High Ability Studies, 16(1), 27-40.

Through annual talent searches based on the model developed by Julian Stanley, the Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth (CTY) seeks to identify, assess and recognize students with advanced academic abilities. CTY has also developed extensive programs and services to meet the needs of these students. Having grown steadily in response to students' needs since its inception, CTY now serves approximately 80,000 students each year through its talent search and various academic offerings. This article presents an overview of these programs and services.

Brody, L.E. (1998). The talent searches: A catalyst for change in higher education. The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 9(3), 124-133.

This article discusses the impact of the talent search programs on higher education. It is suggested that the talent identification process provided by the talent searches, as well as the academic programs they offer, make students more aware of their abilities, leading many of them to apply to more selective colleges with demanding programs. These students typically enter college with more advanced academic preparation as well, and colleges are eager to attract these highly capable students. Higher education institutions have responded with numerous precollege offerings, and many have also enhanced their opportunities for college students to take advantage of accelerated learning opportunities.

Brody, L.E. & Mills, C.J. (2005). Talent search research: what have we learned? High Ability Studies, 16(1), 97-111.

This chapter summarizes the lessons learned from the over 25 years of research conducted by the Center for Talented Youth, as well as the prior 10 years of research conducted by Dr Julian Stanley and his gradute students. This summary also includes work done by several other talent searches (Duke, Northwestern and Rocky Mountain), although a complete description of their work can be found in the individual aricles written by each. The findings from the hundreds of research studies conducted validate the talent search identification model and process, as well as the programs developed to meet the needs of identified students. In addition, the authors have condensed the findings from numerous research projects examining the cognitive, social, personality and academic development of the students CTY serves.

Mills, C. J. (1992). Academically talented children: The case for early identification and nurturance. Pediatrics 89(1), 156-157.

Almost without exception, experts in the field of education of the intellectually gifted agree that early identification of such talented students is important. There is a good deal of evidence to show that many gifted students who are not identified and whose needs are not met adequately at an early age become frustrated and disillusioned with school, falling into a pattern of low achievement and/or behavioral problems. At the very least, we know that if educational intervention does not take place at an early age, the child is missing out on valuable years of exciting learning. Interest in learning may diminish and important study skills may not develop because the child is never challenged to think and work hard. If left alone by the middle grades, the pattern of underachievement is a lifestyle that is almost impossible to change.

Mills, C. J., Ablard, K. E., & Brody, L. E. (1993). The Raven's Progressive Matrices: Its usefulness for identifying talented students. Roeper Review, 15, 183-186.

Inadequate standardization and norming have been cited as major limitations preventing widespread use of the Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM). It appears to measure some type of reasoning ability, but the nature of that ability has not been clearly established. The test is also criticized for being costly, for providing little differentiated information about a student's range of abilities or the range of abilities worthy of identification, and for a lack of evidence concerning its usefulness as a way to identify gifted students with a learning disability. There is, however, some evidence to suggest that the inclusion of the RPM in an identification battery may broaden the range of abilities assessed. Important considerations are provided when using the advanced level of the RPM for identifying talented students.

Mills, C. J., & Barnett, L. B. (1992). The use of the Secondary School Admissions Test (SSAT) to identify academically talented elementary school students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 155-159.

Based on the results of 2 pilot testing projects, the SSAT appears to be an acceptable instrument for identifying academically talented students of elementary school age. An above-level form of the SSAT was administered to 2 samples totaling 305 5th- and 6th-graders. Mean scores for 8th- and 9th-grade normative samples are recommended as cutoffs for identifying highly able 5th- and 6th-grade students who could benefit from academically challenging programming.

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Metacognition

Ablard, K.E., Hoffhines, V.L., & Mills, C.J. (1996). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Learning styles and motivation (Tech. Rep. No. 15). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K. E., & Lipschultz, R. E. (1998). Self-regulated learning in high achieving students: Relations to advanced reasoning, achievement goals, and gender. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 94-101.

The relation between achievement and self-regulated learning (SRL) is more complex than originally believed. In this study, 222 seventh-grade students (53% boys) described their use of SRL strategies and rated their achievement goals (mastery, or focus on understanding material; and performance, or focus on high performance to verify ability). Students were high achievers, performing at or above the 97th percentile on a standardized achievement test. However, they ranged widely in their use of SRL strategies, suggesting that SRL strategies are not necessary for high achievement. Reasons for variation in SRL were examined. Advanced reasoning was not related to SRL. Mastery goal orientation and gender were significantly related to SRL. As mastery goals increased, so did the use of SRL strategies. Girls reported greater use of SRL strategies involving personal regulation or optimizing the environment and when completing difficult homework or engaged in reading and writing. SRL yields important information about how students engage in the learning process and why students of similar achievement levels may display future differences in their achievement.

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Parents of Gifted Youth

Ablard, K. E. (1997). Parents’ conceptions of academic success: Internal and external standards. The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 8(2), 57-64.

The ways in which parents get involved and advocate for their children’s education rely upon parents’ conceptions of academic success. Mothers (n = 547) and fathers (n = 547) of sixth-grade, academically talented students (62% males) completed a questionnaire assessing parents’ definitions of academic success. Definitions were classified as Internal (i.e., emphasized behaviors relative to the student, had individual importance, or were self-satisfying), External (i.e., emphasized behaviors recognized as eminent by others or superior to peers), Both, or Neither. Conceptions were related to parents’ education level, gender, and ethnic group. Parents likely to emphasize internal standards were those without a doctorate or medical degree, mothers, and White parents. These groups may be supportive of programs catering to individual needs and abilities. Fathers were more likely than mothers to measure academic success by external standards including high grades, college acceptance, and employment in a good career, which suggests that they support programs fostering the attainment of eminent achievements and may exert more pressure on their children to achieve.

Ablard, K. E., & Parker, W. D. (1997). Parents’ achievement goals and perfectionism in their academically talented children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 651-667.

Parents of academically talented students have been accused of pushing their children to attain high levels of achievement, as well as fostering performance anxiety and perfectionism in their children. Parents’ achievement goals for their children, in terms of the focus on high performance (performance goal) or learning for understanding (learning goal), were examined in relation to children’s perfectionism. Parents (127 sets) and their sixth-grade academically talented children (56% boys) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and parents reported their achievement goals for their children. Most parents reported learning goals, suggesting that emphasis on meeting external standards is not predominant among parents of talented students. Children of performance goal parents were significantly more likely to exhibit dysfunctional perfectionism than children of learning goal parents, reporting a combination of high concern about mistakes, doubts about actions, parental expectations, and parental criticism. Parents’ achievement goals can help predict which students might be at risk for adjustment problems and future underachievement.

Blackburn, C. C., & Brody, L. E. (1994). Family background characteristics of students who reason extremely well mathematically and/or verbally. In N. Colangelo, S. G. Assouline, & D. L. Ambroson (Eds.), Talent Development (Vol. II) (pp. 439-444). Dayton, OH: Ohio Psychology Publishing Co.

The Study of Exceptional Talent (SET) at The Johns Hopkins University identifies students who score 700-800 on the mathematical portion and/or 630-800 on the verbal portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) before age 13. SET members include a national sample of students identified at age 12 or younger as representing the most exceptional students in their age group with respect to mathematical and/or verbal reasoning ability. From 1980 through 1992, 1132 individuals joined SET; 76% of them were ma le and 24% of them female. The SET population has a very high representation of Asians compared to the general population, particularly among math qualifiers and female qualifiers. Over 90% of SET participants live in intact families with biological parents. Two-thirds of them are only or oldest children, and two-thirds of them live in families with two or fewer children. A majority of their parents have attained high levels of formal education. One-third of these students’ mothers are full-time homemaker s. Thus, these students, as a group, seem to be quite advantaged in their home backgrounds: most parents have the education to provide a rich intellectual environment for their children, and at least one-third of the mothers presumably have considerable time to devote to addressing their children’s needs.

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Perfectionism

Parker, W. D. (1997). An empirical typology of perfectionism in academically talented 6th graders. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 545-562.

A nationally gathered sample of 820 academically talented 6th graders at the Center for Talented Youth of Johns Hopkins University took the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and scores were cluster analyzed using both hierarchical and nonhierarchical cluster analysis with cross-validation. A 3-cluster solution was indicated. Students also took the Adjective Check List, the NEO-Five Factor Inventory, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Brief Symptom Inventory to determine characteristics of cluster membership. Results indicated that the cluster groups comprised a non-perfectionistic type (32.8%), a healthy perfectionistic type (41.7%), and a dysfunctional perfectionistic type (25.5%). Parent perceptions of the children were consistent with the students' self-perceptions. The construct of perfectionism was primarily associated with conscientiousness and secondarily with agreeableness and neurosis.

Parker, W. D., & Adkins, K. K. (1995). Perfectionism and the gifted. Roeper Review, 17, 173-176.

The different theoretical views of perfectionism are examined. Two multidimensional scales, each known as the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, are compared. These two scales have allowed the study of perfectionism to empirically investigate the leads suggested by earlier methods (i.e., case studies, anecdotal reports, or theoretical formulations), while permitting much greater precision in the definition and construct of perfectionism. Research questions concerning both the general and the gifted and talented populations are presented.

Parker, W. D., & Mills, C. J. (1996). The incidence of perfectionism in gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 40, 194-199.

Using the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, perfectionism scores were compared between a group of 600 students identified as academically talented and a group of 418 peers from the general cohort. In this nationally gathered sample, all students we re sixth graders and of similar socioeconomic status. Findings indicated little difference between the mean scores of the two groups. Comparisons were also made between the gifted students and the general cohort using an empirical typology of perfectionism. This analysis did not indicate a statistically significant difference in the frequency of perfectionistic types between gifted students and the general cohort. These findings suggest that the frequent anecdotal reports of greater perfectionism among the gifted may be a product of differential labeling patterns of similar behaviors when demonstrated by gifted students and the general cohort, or may represent a relationship with socioeconomic level rather than intellectual level. A greater distinction between perfectionistic strivings which stimulate excellence and those perfectionistic strivings which frustrate and inhibit achievement needs to be made.

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Personality & Learning Styles

Mills, C. J. (1980). Sex roles, personality, and cognitive skills. Roeper Review, 2, 29-31.

Motivated by the belief that meaningful relationships exist between personality attributes and intellectual abilities, an investigation was undertaken to examine and clarify such relationships between sex-role-related personality variables and two intellectual variables often associated with sex differences: math and verbal ability. The results of the study show that certain personality characteristics associated with existing sex roles may be developmentally linked to cognitive skills in either a causal relationship or through shared socialization experiences.

Mills, C. J. (1981). Sex roles, personality, and intellectual abilities in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10(2), 85-111.

The relationship between personality variables associated with sex roles and the cognitive variables of math and verbal ability was examined in three groups of adolescents. Masculinity and femininity of interests, behavioral traits, and values were examined using three inventories: the Femininity Scale from the California Psychological Inventory, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and the Study of Values. Results indicate that there is some evidence for a positive relationship (for both sexes) between masculine traits and values and math ability, and feminine traits and values and verbal skills. Certain traits indicative of maturity were found to be positively related to both high math and high verbal scores, while certain highly sex-typed traits and interest s were found to be negatively related to both cognitive variables. A different relationship for males and females was found between high intellectual scores and indicators of self-concept and emotional well-being. The differing relationship between each o f the three personality variables indicative of sex roles (e.g., interests, values, traits) and cognitive variables emphasizes the need to view masculinity and femininity, as well as “sex-role,” as a complex combination of the many different aspects of how gender is viewed in our society.

Mills, C. J. (1993). Personality, learning style and cognitive style profiles of mathematically talented students. European Journal for High Ability, 4, 70-85.

Clear personality differences were found for a sample of academically talented students when compared to a general population of same age students. On the Myers-Briggs dimensions, the academically talented students differed significantly from the comparison group on all four dimensions. Specifically, the academically talented group expressed greater preferences for introversion, intuition, and thinking. Although there were more judging types in this group than in the comparison group, overall more academically talented students expressed a preference for a perceptive style. They also tended to be higher on achievement motivation and lower on interpersonal and social concerns. In particular, a cognitive style that emphasizes a thinking over a feeling mo de appears to mediate gender differences in mathematics ability and achievement.

Mills, C. J., Moore, N. D., & Parker, W. D. (1996). Psychological type and cognitive style in elementary-age gifted students: Comparisons across age and gender. Journal of Psychological Type, 38, 13-23.

The Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children (MMTIC) was administered to 240 academically talented third through sixth graders. Type was compared to the norms of the MMTIC and to 345 eighth through tenth grade students of comparable ability who had been administered the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The most common type was ENFP (Extraversion, Intuition, Feeling, Perceiving), accounting for over 45% of the sample. The participants were more likely to be N and P than the normative group. Academically talented males were more likely to be Extraverted and academically talented; females were more likely to be Introverted. Large differences were found between the older and younger groups, with the younger students showing greater preference for Extraversion, Sensing, Feeling, and Perceiving.

Mills, C. J., & Parker, W. D. (1998). Cognitive-psychological profiles of gifted adolescents from Ireland and the U.S.: Cross-societal comparisons. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(1), 1-16.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was administered to 1247 gifted adolescents from the United States and a comparable sample of 309 gifted Irish adolescents, all of whom were attending summer programs for the academically talented. Strikingly similar patterns of cognitive and psychological styles were found for the gifted students in both Ireland and the U.S. These patterns are quite different than those found in normative samples of U.S. students. The most consistent finding was that the majority of gifted students score highly on N (Intuition), indicative of a preference for the abstract and theoretical. This is in contrast to studies showing the majority of U.S. students from the general population have a preference for the factual and pragmatic. Many of the gifted students from both societies showed preferences for modes of thinking and learning that may be at odds with typical instruction styles. Implications for educational practices and policy are suggested.

Parker, W. D., & Stumpf, H. (1998). A validation of the five-factor model of personality in academically talented youth across observers and instruments. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(6), 1005-1025.

Four instruments--the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), the Adjective Check List (ACL), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and the California Child Q-Set (CCQ)--and two data sources--self reports and parental ratings--were used to assess personality dimensions according to the five-factor model of personality in 870 academically talented youth (mean age = 13.77 years) from the United States. Data from the parents of 565 of these children were also analyzed. The factor structure of the self and parent reports, the convergence between the two sources of reports, and the correlations of the adjectives in the ACL with the scores on the NEO-FFI were all consistent with previous results obtained from adults. The findings largely support the notion that the five-factor model as derived from data from adults is applicable to academically talented youth.

Runco, M. A., & Sakamoto, S. M. O. (1993). Reaching creatively gifted students through their learning styles. In R. Milgram & Dunn (Eds.), Learning styles and the gifted. New York: Praeger.

The actual role of creativity in giftedness is discussed in this chapter. The authors’ view is that all truly gifted children are creative. We offer predictions, based on three areas of research, about the learning styles of these children: The first focuses on the personality traits that characterize creative children; the second covers the cognitive characteristics of creativity (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-finding and evaluative skills, and creative strategies); and the third emphasizes educational preferences of creative children. These preferences involve relationships with teachers and peers (i.e., grouping preferences).

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Psychometric Studies

Parker, W. D., & Adkins, K. K. (1995). A psychometric examination of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 17, 323-334.

The reliability and factor structure of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) was examined, using a sample of 278 college students with more typical academic abilities than that of Frost et al.’s original all-female sample from an elite university. Significant differences were found on the overall MPS score as well as on six of the seven sub scales between the present sample and that of Frost et al. No gender differences were found for any of the MPS scores. Internal reliability was .88 for the total score, with subtests ranging from .57 to .95. Inter-score correlations were relatively consistent with the Frost et al. sample except for a negative correlation between the Personal Standards sub scale and the total score. The factor structure and construct validity were familyirmed. Overall, results support the use of the MPS to measure the construct of perfectionism.

Parker, W. D., & Mills, C. J. (1998). An examination of the Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children with a sample of academically talented children. Journal of Psychological Type, 44, 20-25.

The equivalence of scores on the Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children (MMTIC) and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was investigated with a sample of 152 academically talented fifth through seventh graders. Although the MMTIC’s internal re liability was acceptably high, alternate forms reliability between the MMTIC and MBTI was not. Concordance of type classification was disappointing, and the MMTIC’s classification errors were systematic rather than random.

Parker, W. D., & Stumpf, H. (1995). An examination of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale with a sample of academically talented youth. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 13, 372-383.

The reliability, construct validity, and concurrent validity of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) was examined with 855 academically talented 6th graders. The internal consistency of the MPS total score was .87; coefficient alphas for the sub scales ranged from .67 to .90. A familyirmatory item factor analysis demonstrated an acceptable degree of fit. A factor analysis of raw scores on the MPS sub scales yielded two factors. The first factor appears to represent dysfunctional perfectionism, while the second reflects healthy perfectionism. Scores on these factors were correlated with the five-factor domain scores obtained on the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Overall, results support the use of the MPS to measure the construct of perfectionism in academically talented children.

Stumpf, H., & Baxley, P.G. (2006). On the Predictive Validity of the CTY's Spatial Test Battery (STB) and the PLUS Test with Respect to Young Students' Performance in CTY Mathematics and Science Courses (Tech. Rep. No. 34). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H., & Mills, C.J. (1999). Psychometric Properties of the 1997/1998 Version of the Computerized Spatial Test Battery (STB) and its impact on the CTY and CAA Talent Searches (Tech. Rep. No. 22). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H. & Mills, C.J. (1999). Predictive Validity of the Scholastic Assessment Test 1 (SAT I) and the Spatial Test Battery (STB) with Respect to Study Success in CTY and CAA Mathematics and Science Courses (Tech. Rep. No. 23). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H. & MIlls, C.J. (2000). On the Predictive Validity of the Scholastic Assessment Test 1 (SAT 1) and the Spatial Test Battery (STB) with Respect to Teacher Evaluations of Performance in CTY and CAA Mathematics and Science Courses. (Tech. Rep. No. 25). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

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Self-Perception

Ablard, K.E. (2002). Achievement Goals and Implicit Theories of Intelligence Among Academically Talented Students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 25(3), 215-232.

Academically talented students vary in their reasons for achievement, variation that may provide insight into differences in achievement-related behaviors (e.g., effort and avoidance of challenge) and future underachievement. There were 425 students (at or above the 97th percentile) who completed questions assessing achievement goals and personal beliefs about intelligence. Students ranged widely in learning goals that focus on understanding material and performance goals that focus on doing better than others. As learning goals became stronger, so did beliefs that intelligence can increase via effort. Of all students, 4.4% embraced performance goals and had low familyidence in their intellectual ability, a combination of beliefs that can place them at risk for later underachievement.

Ablard, K. E. (1997). Self-perceptions and needs as a function of type of academic ability and gender. Roeper Review, 20, 110-115.

Negative self-perceptions and feelings that one is different make academically talented students at risk for social problems and underachievement. One-hundred seventy-four academically talented eighth grade students (47% males) completed the Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale and the Adjective Check List. Relative to a normative group of adolescents, these students had significantly higher academic self-concepts but similar social self-concepts. Academically talented females had stronger needs for achievement, dominance, and endurance, but weaker needs for succorance and abasement than a normative group of females. Students were grouped by their SAT Math and Verbal scores: Moderate Math/Moderate Verbal, Moderate Math/High Verbal, High Math/Moderate Verbal, and High Math/High Verbal. High verbal students had weaker needs to be nurturant and had less interest in relationships with opposite-gender persons than students moderate in math and verbal areas. Academically talented students vary in their self-perceptions and needs; thus, they are likely to vary in their academic and social adjustment. When identifying students who might be at risk for adjustment problems, gender, degree of ability, and type of ability should be considered.

Ablard, K. E., & Mills, C. J. (1996). Implicit theories of intelligence and self-perceptions of academically talented students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 137-148.

Beliefs about intelligence can vary from the view that it is stable to the view that it is unstable. Third-11th grade academically talented students (60% male), n=153, completed a questionnaire that requested them to describe the stability of intelligence on a six-point scale. They were also asked to describe themselves in terms of their effort expended on academic tasks, preference for challenging tasks, and ability. High school students believed intelligence was more stable than elementary school students. No gender differences were found for perceived stability of intelligence. Females perceived themselves as harder workers than males. Findings may account for long-term achievement differences among academically talented students.

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Social-Emotional Development

Brody, L. E., & Benbow, C. P. (1986). Social and emotional adjustment of adolescents extremely talented in verbal or mathematical reasoning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15, 1-18.

Perceptions of self-esteem, locus of control, popularity, depression (or unhappiness), and discipline problems as indices of social and emotional adjustment were investigated in highly verbally or mathematically talented adolescents. Compared to a group of students who are much less gifted, the highly gifted students perceive themselves as less popular, but no differences were found in self-esteem, depression, or the incidence of discipline problems. The gifted students reported greater internal locus of control. Comparisons between the highly mathematically talented students and the highly verbally talented students suggested that the students in the latter group perceive themselves as less popular. Within both the gifted and comparison groups, there were also slight indications that higher verbal ability may be related to some social and emotional problems.

Cameron, P., Mills, C., & Heinzen, T. (1995). The social context and developmental patterns of crystallizing experiences among academically talented youth. Roeper Review, 17, 197-200.

This study examined the social context in which crystallizing experiences (CEs), experiences which solidify the individual's awareness of some aspect of the self, occurred among 422 academically talented youth entering the sixth through tenth grades. Content and Chi square analyses indicate that most CEs occur in a public setting, are related to personal achievement, do not require conscious self-initiative, and usually involve significant interaction with another person. Furthermore, CEs that result i n recognition and affirmation of ability at an early age may help to establish a positive academic self-concept and foster further development of self-identity.

Parker, W. D. (1994). Psychological adjustment in mathematically gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 40, 154-157.

The Brief Symptom Inventory was administered to 274 mathematically gifted secondary students identified by a national talent search and enrolled in a summer precalculus program. Results indicated that these students were significantly better adjusted than the adolescent normative group. Gender, age, achievement level, and verbal ability were unrelated to adjustment scores.

Timberlake, E. M., Barnett, L. B., & Plionis, E. M. (1993). Coping with self and academic talent. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 10(1), 21-37.

A possible explanatory framework of the coping and adaptation of 159 academically able 7th graders was tested by exploring their strengths and vulnerabilities in coping with their differences, their peer relationship styles (PRSs), and their patterns o f achievement motivation (ACM). The range of responses included a bifurcated distribution pattern of strengths and vulnerabilities in values related to ACM and normal distribution patterns in coping with self and academic ability and PRS. Findings support the use of structured self-reports in obtaining participants' perspectives on self-in-context and as a supplement in psychosocial assessment.

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Spatial Ability / Scientific Talent

Heinzen, T. E., Mills, C. J., & Cameron, P. (1993). Scientific innovation potential. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 261-269.

Early indicators of scientific-innovation potential were explored among 20 science-oriented students (aged 12-16 years) identified as talented. Interviews and questionnaire data from subjects and 44 of their parents suggest that (1) creative thinking and intrinsic motivation distinguish these students from their peers better than other creativity-related variables; (2) the earliest indicators of these abilities are persistent inquisitiveness combined with a long attention span often demonstrated by early reading or verbal ability; (3) these indicators are apparent by preschool or early elementary-school age; and (4) these abilities are accompanied by a range of social supports. Both students and parents portray schools as generally unsupportive or hostile to creativity.

Stumpf, H. (1993). Performance factors and gender-related differences in spatial ability: Another assessment. Memory and Cognition, 21, 828-836.

To explore whether test-taking styles (performance factors) can contribute to explaining gender-related differences on tests of spatial ability, 15 spatial tests were administered to three samples of subjects. On each test, number-correct scores and ratio scores (number of items solved divided by the number of items attempted) were computed. In accordance with previous research findings, the use of ratio scores significantly reduced the magnitude of the gender-related differences on the Mental Rotations Test. For most of the remaining tests, however, the reduction of the gender-related score difference was small. It was concluded that the difference reduction for the Mental Rotations Test was specific to the format of this test. In common spatial test, performance factors may account for a small portion of gender-related variance, but the bulk of this variance must be attributed to other factors.

Stumpf, H. (1994). Subskills of spatial ability and their relationships to success in accelerated mathematics courses. In K. A. Heller & E. A. Hany (Eds.), Competence and Responsibility: The Third European familyerence Council for High Ability (pp. 286-297). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.

This study explored what subskills of spatial ability make a contribution to the prediction of success in accelerated mathematics courses. A battery was compiled of 14 types of spatial tests that broadly sample the ways in which spatial ability has bee n operationally defined in terms of tests so far. Two forms of this battery were administered to a large sample of 13-16 year old students taking courses offered by the Center for Talented Youth (CTY) of Johns Hopkins University. The Surface Development and Perspectives tasks were among the most predictively valid tests.

Stumpf, H. (1995). Scientific creativity: A short overview. Educational Psychology Review, 7, 225-241.

This article presents an overview of important findings, methods, and theories related to scientific creativity, grouped into a four-fold classification of

1. the creative product,
2. the creative person,
3. the creative process, and
4. the creative situation.

Methods for evaluating the impact and creativeness of the creative product includes citation analysis and rating inventories. Findings are presented on the personality of creative scientists and research productivity across the life span. A stage theory o f the creative act is reviewed in the context of the creative process. Discussion of the creative situation includes a summary of factors conducive to creative achievement and a discussion of the problem of multiple discoveries. Simonton's (1988) chance familyiguration theory is also reviewed, and recommendations for further research on scientific creativity are presented.

Stumpf, H. (1995). Implicit theories of scientific innovation: An interview study with accomplished scientists (Tech. Rep. No. 11). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H. (1995). Development of a talent search and related programs for scientific innovation among youth (Tech. Rep. No. 12). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H., & Baxley, P.G. (2006). On the Predictive Validity of the CTY's Spatial Test Battery (STB) and the PLUS Test with Respect to Young Students' Performance in CTY Mathematics and Science Courses (Tech. Rep. No. 34). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Stumpf, H., & Eliot, J. (1995). Gender-related differences in spatial ability and the “k” factor of general spatial ability in a population of academically talented students. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 33-45.

Gender-related differences across a wide array of types of spatial tasks were examined. Two forms of a spatial test battery, each containing 14 types of items, were administered to female and male academically talented students (aged 12-17 years). Fact or analysis yielded a strong general factor (termed the "k factor") underlying performance on both forms. The gender sensitivity of the item types depended to a considerable extent on the loadings of the subtests on the k factor. When the k factor was partialed out of the variances of the tests, gender-related differences on the various types of items were reduced, often to insignificance, and some tests that had initially exhibited little gender-related variance showed advantages for females. Mental rotation and visualization of perspectives, however, consistently showed substantial gender-related variance beyond the variation explained by the k factor.

Stumpf, H., & Haldimann, M. (1997). Spatial ability and academic success of sixth grade students at international schools. School Psychology International, 18, 254-259.

Tests of verbal and mathematical reasoning ability (the Verbal Ability, Quantitative Ability and Mathematics subtests of the Comprehensive Testing Program III) and a test of spatial ability (the CTY Spatial Test Battery [STB], Form HH) were used to predict academic success in a sample of 423 sixth graders at nine international schools. The reasoning measures showed high correlations with success (as measured by the GPA); the scores on the spatial test were also substantially correlated with GPA, although this correlation was somewhat lower than those of the reasoning measures. When the sample was divided into native English speakers and ESL students, native speakers were found to have an advantage on the reasoning tests, especially on the verbal one, but not on the measure of spatial ability. With small group differences on the GPA, the reasoning tests, especially the verbal test, underestimated the academic potential of the ESL students. It was concluded that the spatial test can contribute to reducing the bias against ESL students that is likely to occur when measures of verbal reasoning ability are administered to members of this population.

Study of Exceptional Talent (SET)

Blackburn, C.C., & Brody, L.E. (1996). The Study of Exceptional Talent: A Longitudinal Study (Tech. Rep. No. 24). Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Brody, L.E. (2006). Counseling Highly Gifted Students to Utilize Supplemental Educational Opportunities: Using the SET Program as a Model. Series 7 in Serving Gifted Learners Beyond the Traditional Classroom series, J.L. VanTassel-Baska (Ed.D.). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Brody, L.E. (2005). The Study of Exceptional Talent. High Ability Studies, 16(1), 87-96.

The Study of Exceptional Talent (SET) identifies students who exhibit extremely advanced mathematical and/or verbal reasoning abilities and helps them to find the challenging educational programs they need to achieve their full potential. Specifically, students who score 700-800 on the mathematical or verbal portion of the SAT I before age 13 are invited to take advantage of SET's counseling and mentoring opportunties. An ongoing longitudinal study tracks the progress of these students, and their achievements to date have been exceptional. SET students, as a group, participate in a variety of accelerated programs, attend highly selective colleges and universities and earn advanced degrees in large numbers. Those who have embarked on their careers appear to be excelling in their chosen fields as well.

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Teachers of Gifted

Mills, C.J. (2003). Characteristics of Effective Teachers of Gifted Students: Teacher Background and Personality Styles of Students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47(4), 272-281.

This study was designed to explore characteristics of exceptional teachers of gifted students. Participants included 63 teachers and 1,274 highly able students. Teachers responded to 2 measures: a background questionnaire and the Myers Briggs Type Inventory (MBIT), a self-report personality inventory. Students also completed the MBTI. In response to the background questionnaire, the majority of teachers reported holding advanced degrees in a content area; most were not certified to teach and reported completing no formal coursework in gifted education. Results from the MBTI indicated that exemplary teachers were more likely to prefer N (intuition) and T (thinking), as compared to a normative teacher sample. The personality types of teachers were in many ways similar to the personality types of the gifted students. These findings suggest that teachers who are judged to be highly effective in working with gifted students prefer abstract themes and concepts, are open and flexible, and value logical analysis and objectivity. Results suggest that teacher personality and cognitive style may play a role in his or her effectiveness in teaching gifted students.

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Other Technical Reports

Advocacy

Barnett, L.B. (1990). Toward developing academically talented youth: Assessing parent and school support for young students (Tech. Rep. No. 101). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Barnett, L.B. (1991a). CTY advocacy and intervention in New Jersey: Observations and comments of students, parents, and schools regarding academic talent  (Tech.  Rep. No. 103A). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Barnett, L.B., Plionis, E.M., & Timberlake, E.M. (1992). Broadening the assessment and service base for academically talented students (Tech. Rep. No. 104). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

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Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY)

Ablard, K.E., Mills, C.J., & Hoffhines, V.L. (1996). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): The participants (Tech. Rep. No. 13). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K.E., Hoffhines, V.L., & Mills, C.J. (1996). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Learning Styles and Motivation (Tech. Rep. No. 15). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K.E., Lipschultz, R.E., & Mills, C.J. (1998). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Computer use (Tech. Rep. No. 17). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K.E., Hoffhines, V.L., & Mills, C.J. (1998). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Sixth Grade to Ninth Grade (Tech. Rep. No. 19). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Blackburn, C.C. (1997). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Early Career Interests (Tech. Rep. No. 20). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

Ablard, K.E. (2004). The Developmental Study of Talented Youth (DSTY): Sixth Grade to Ninth Grade (Tech. Rep. No. 31). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth.

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Programs

Ablard Mickenberg, K. (2006). The Value of Pre-Post As